Advertising, Semiotics and Ideology

Semiotics originated with Swiss linguistic analyst Ferdinand de Saussure. He showed that language was a system of signs or signals which enabled people to communicate with each other. The terms he used were: ‘signifier’-something that stands for something else; ‘signified’ – is the idea of the thing it stands for; ‘sign’ – is the union of the two. [1]

Where Saussure related semiotics to language, Roland Barthes (1915 – 1980) used it for images and published his thoughts in the book Mythologies (1957). One of his examples is a bunch of roses which he uses to signify passion. The roses are the signifier and the passion the signified. Each existed previously separately but when brought together the roses were ‘passionified’.

‘The sign has a particular meaning to a person or group of people’ [2]. It is the combination of the object/thing (Signifier) and its meaning (Signified). The sign is always the thing plus meaning.

Judith Williamson [2] discusses the use of semiotics when decoding advertisements rather than using the more traditional ‘form’ and ‘ content’ for reading images.  She argues that ‘form’ and ‘content’ can be separated whereas ‘signifiers’ and ‘signifieds’ go together which results in a meaning to a specific viewer or group. Admittedly that may take on a different meaning to different people which is where advertisers use their skill to sell products by appealing to an unconscious aspect of a persons visual knowledge.

The best photographs are the ones that do not give everything away, they leave a certain amount for the viewer to translate themselves. An advertisement is similar in that the more successful ones are more subtle and can work over a period time to gain brand loyalty without being too pushy. The skill is in using visual language that can be understood by the right group of people.

Goodyear G800 Supersteels advert – Google Images

In her study Williamson looks at advertisements and describes them using semiotics. The most interesting is the advert for Goodyear tyres where the new design is shown being tested on a jetty. At first glance the jetty is the signifier and the signified (meaning) emphasises the that the tyres can be trusted to stop your car before falling in to the water. In fact there is another use of the jetty in that its construction has a similarity to a tyre and rather than being the risk element, it can also be used to show strength and toughness, withstanding water and erosion. These are all attributes that the advertiser wants the viewer to attribute to their tyres.

The advertisements she looks at throughout her study  show that ‘the work of the signifiers is as much a part of the ideology and social convention as the more obvious signifieds’. ([2], p19.)

Ideology is one of the categories that Negreiros and Howells describe in Visual Culture [1]. They use John Berger as a key author in this area with his book The Ways of Seeing (1972). Political standpoints and sociological aspects allow different meanings to be read in to images.

They also review the work of Pierre Boourdieu, a French Sociologist,  who believed texts are produced with twin concepts: ‘habitus’ and ‘field’. The former can be described as ‘people assume and articulate the world vision of their particular social group’. It is their second nature based on childhood and upbringing and held for a lifetime. These dispositions are unconsciously absorbed and operated.

It is these ‘social groups’ that advertisers use to get the best return for their marketing buck. Their choice of content will be matched to the media format and publication.

Panzani advert – author and year unknown

In ‘The Meanings of Photographs’ chapter of Stephen Bull’s Photography [3], he describes Barthes study of the ‘Panzani’ advert and reiterates the use of ‘connotation’ of a return from the market, of quality fresh food from the home of pasta, when in reality it is factory food made in France. Bull goes on to explain Barthes other observation of connotation in that it is dependant on ideology.

In Barthes usage, ideologoy is a set of beliefs, learned and reinforced by the masses themselves. ‘The connotation of the Panzani advert depends on its position in culture where ideologies of naturalness, authenticity and the experience of other cultures are unquestionably considered desirable. [3], p36.’

Advertising is used a lot by authors and academics in the study of interpreting images because they are well laid out and planned. However, the principles remain the same and are available to a viewer when reading a photograph. Bull uses Martin Parr’s image England (a cup of tea) where the connotation is of ‘Britishness’.

Martin Parr England, 1998

The Panzani advert used red, white and green to emphasise the products ‘Italianicity’. Parr uses red, white and blue for his British cup of tea on a gingham tablecloth. He adds another socio-political angle by using a tea cup with a Chinese pattern. This image can then be read by its viewers as a history of British tea drinking or alternatively recognition of the British Empire and the positive and negative connotations of that period of British history.

References:

1. Howells. R and Negreiros. J, Visual Culture, Polity Press, 2nd Edition, 2011
2. Williamson. J, Decoding Advertisements, Marion Boyars Publishers, 2002
3. Bull. S, Photography, Routledge, 2010
4. Barthes. R, Rhetoric of the Image, essay 1967

Deconstruction Exercise

Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) was a French philosopher best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction. His concepts and theories are associated with postmodern philosophy, so it is not too much of a stretch to relate it to art photography.

His theory is to find what might be of value in ideas that we easily overlook. He identifies that we have an excessive loyalty to one aspect or side of an idea or argument. He encourages people to look at aspects of an opposing idea where you may find aspects of the truth.

We fail to see the advantages of neglected opposites because we are trained to believe there is a correct answer to anything. It follows that everything else is wrong. Derrida, however, encourages people to be comfortable with not being able to reach a correct conclusion. He emphasises that there is not a neat solution behind every problem.

Derrida believed that uncertainty was a mark of maturity. Confusion and doubt should not be embarrassing traits. He viewed IQ testing with scepticism as it only measured one aspect of a person but not what type of person they were or their individual characteristics to be good at things.

In keeping with these ideas he concluded that things cannot be neatly expressed in words or writing. We can then conclude that a photograph cannot neatly express correctness of a thing. Who decides what is correct. The artist, the millions of potential viewers, the editor of a publication. Photographers and editors can control what is included or accompanies an image but it still has the possibility of being misinterpreted by someone.

A street photographer has to be aware of his intention and not include anything that may redirect from viewer from their intention. Similarly a staged image may still evoke different thoughts from different people.

Take the example of a bathroom advert from a newspaper. The scene is probably a mock up of a bathroom rather than a real bathroom, but it is not clear. The photographer and designer have created a scene that is warm and luxurious in an attempt to get the viewer to initially dream about having such a bathroom and then enticing them to believe it is possible to have this.

I have circled some aspects of the photo that I think are interesting:

Bath, sink and toilet – the basic items of a bathroom are included. Note that the toilet is only partially in the frame as it is not considered to be in keeping with pleasant luxury. It has a necessary and practical function but the author does not want us to dwell on that aspect.

Text – The name of the company is prominent along with the large text of the percentage off deals. The text ‘up to’ is vastly smaller so the viewer may miss this ‘small print’ but this may be after they have visited the showroom or set their heart on a new bathroom suite. ‘Experts’ is repeated throughout. The ‘Deconstruction’ principal may get us to challenge who determines who is a bathroom expert. ‘Bathrooms matter’. Do they? Compared to what? They help some of us relax but some people may have an issue with water, heat and steam.

Graphics/Colour – The company logo includes snake like lines implying a warm bath. Red circles are used to emphasise the deal and the cooler blue returns us to the companies brand colour. The image is mainly black and white bit a small touch of blue (duck) and copper (taps). As a result these stand out but the viewer has the ability to imagine the room it in there own favourite colour palette.

Space – The scene is actually in quite a small space but the designer has chosen a basin and bath that has space underneath. The mirror, a signifier of beauty, adds space as do the inset shelves. The tall radiator adds to the height.

In use – Although there is nobody in the frame using the bathroom, there are indicators in the form of a draped towel over the bath edge, a rubber duck on the floor and a bowl for flannels and soap next to the bath.

Practicalities – I initially couldn’t understand the relevance of the step and in particular its sharp corner, especially in a slippery environment. Further ‘looking’ made me question the practicalities of plumbing. I worked out the basin plumbing but for a second I couldn’t understand the plumbing of the bath taps. I then realised it would be under the raised floor. The angle of view hides any potential untidiness.

Deconstruction will tell us to make note that this is an advert and to be aware that we may not need a new bathroom or the offer may not be as good as it first appears. But there may be some advantages in having a new bathroom. More relaxing maybe. It may increase the value of the property so it could be an investment. Keep an open mind and something good may come of it.

Departures – Elliot Erwitt photograph

Elliot Erwitt, New York, 1974

Elliot Erwitt (b. ????) took images that had dogs in them. In this light hearted photograph there is a small dog dressed in a hat and coat looking straight at us. In fact, straight at Erwitt’s camera. His viewpoint is low down at the little dogs eye level. The little dog looks intrigued although a little bit puzzled.

Our eye then scans the rest of the scene where we see the owners boots and the front legs of another dog. Our gaze hops two steps to the left and returns back to the little dog.

The dogs eye level is centred on the horizontal plane and in the right hand third on the vertical plane. The image shows us strong verticals, mainly in the form of legs but also the tree, the lead and the pavement blocks.

The subject of the image is the little dog and because we view it at his level we can begin to wonder what a walk with his owner is like. What is his owner like? What is the big dog like? Does he wonder why he has to be dressed in a hat and coat?

It is a humorous encounter and cleverly composed.

The course notes raise these further questions that I had not contemplated: Does he like to help the ‘underdog’? Does he prefer dogs over humans? Is he making a statement about giving everyone a voice? Or is he just making a joke?

I thought he was just making a joke. His series of ‘dogs’ suggests he does like dogs but is it just this image that raises those other questions or the whole series?

No means of expression or communication

The course notes ask ‘What photographs are not used as a means of expression or communication?’. Having given this some thought I am of the opinion that all photographs communicate something. They may not have multiple layers of meaning or expression but they all communicate something.

The requirement of a passport photograph is for it to be expressionless. Its purpose is a means of communicating an identity in the form of a pictorial likeness.

Photographs recording a collection of objects are communicating ownership, an itinerary of possessions and also a likeness.

A scanned document is the transformation of a paper document to an electronic version. The need to convert it allows it to be communicated efficiently to a large number of recipients.

Maybe the question was specific to art photography.  If so then context plays a big part in what on the surface may be mundane and emotionless. The very act of picking up a device to capture the pictorial likeness of something raises the question of ‘why?’.

If the photograph communicates what the photographer wanted to then it has been successful. This will be one of the main criticisms of student assignments. There is always subjectivity at play but a submission can be judged against the students intention. Maybe this is why art photographers do not want to give too much away about their intentions. We as viewers are left to read the images and decide whether it means anything to us.

In fact I do know of photographs that are expressionless and fail to communicate as I am still smarting from the assessors describing my EYV submission images ‘meaningless at times‘. I knew what the idea was but at times I failed to produce images that communicated that idea. I am beginning to see that now and the difference is the amount of time and thought I put into a series of images.  Although you may not realise it that process comes through in the final images.